Structural Metaphor - Definition and Examples

A structural metaphor is a  metaphorical system in which one complex concept (typically abstract) is presented in terms of some other (usually more concrete) concept. A structural metaphor need not be explicitly articulated or defined, according to John Goss, but it operates as a guide to meaning and action in the discursive context within which it operates (Marketing the New Marketing in Ground Truth, 1995). Structural metaphor is one of the three overlapping categories of conceptual metaphors identified by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in Metaphors We Live By (1980). (The other two categories are orientational metaphor and ontological metaphor.) Each individual  structural metaphor is  internally consistent, say Lakoff and Johnson, and it imposes a consistent structure on the concept it structures. Examples and Observations ARGUMENT IS WAR is an example of a structural metaphor. According to Lakoff and Johnson, structural metaphors are cases where one concept is metaphorically structured in terms of another (1980/ 2003:14). Source domains provide frameworks for target domains: these determine the ways in which we think and talk about the entities and activities to which the target domains refer and even the ways in which we behave or carry out activities, as in the case of argument. (M. Knowles and R. Moon, Introducing Metaphor. Routledge, 2006) The War Metaphor In the structural metaphor ECONOMIC ACTIVITY WAR, concepts from the source domain WARFARE are transferred to the target domain, because physical conflict is ubiquitous in human life and therefore quite well-structured and more readily understandable. It coherently structures the relations between the various factors in economic activity: business is war; the economy is a battlefield; competitors are warriors or even armies fighting each other, and economic activities are conceptualized in terms of attack and defense, as illustrated in the following example: As a result of the crisis, the Asians will strike back; they will launch an export offensive. (Wall Street Journal, June 22, 1998, 4) The WAR metaphor is realized in the following schemata: ATTACK and DEFENSE as causes and WIN/LOSE as the result: successful attack and defense result in victory; unsuccessful attack and defense result in loss . . ..(Susanne Richardt, Expert and Common-Sense Reasoning. Text, Context, Concepts, ed. by C. Zelinsky-Wibbelt. Walter de Gruyter, 2003) Labor and Time as Metaphors Let us now consider other structural metaphors that are important in our lives: LABOR IS A RESOURCE and TIME IS A RESOURCE. Both of these metaphors are culturally grounded in our experience with material resources. Material resources are typically raw materials or sources of fuel. Both are viewed as serving purposeful ends. Fuel may be used for heating, transportation, or the energy used in producing a finished product. Raw materials typically go directly into products. In both cases, the material resources can be quantified and given a value. In both cases, it is the kind of material as opposed to the particular piece or quantity of it that is important for achieving the purpose...When we are living by the metaphors LABOR IS A RESOURCE and TIME IS A RESOURCE, as we do in our culture, we tend not to see them as metaphors at all. But . . . both are structural metaphors that are basic to Western industrial societies.​  (George Lakoff and Mark Johnson, Metaphors We Live By. The University of Chicago Press, 1980)

Oedipus The King By Sophocles - 913 Words

In the play, Oedipus the King written by Sophocles the main character Oedipus goes through many tragedies that presents him as serious and superior to ordinary man. Oedipus’ character does not show how he is like an ordinary person. He is shown as a hero who is greater to the ordinary man then again sometimes, he is view to be inferior to the ordinary man. Throughout the play, Oedipus plays blindfold. Oedipus character acts more as if he has no part in the situation that occur. When Oedipus opens the search of the death of King Laius. That is the first step toward his downfall. Oedipus then covers up the murder when he hears the news. The investigation leads Oedipus’s discovery of more information about the murder and his fate. Oedipus is the solver of the sphinx riddle; the riddle was What goes on four feet in the morning, two feet at noon, and three feet in the evening? When Oedipus travelled to Thebes and the sphinx posed the riddle to him. His answer was a â€Å"human being† because a human walks on all fours, on two legs as an adult and with a walking stick when old. Jocasta is superior to the â€Å"ordinary† girl, women, mother and wife. Even though she is the queen of Thebes, it is not as beautiful as it sounds. When she was young she was first married to King Laius, their marriage was a happy one. When she was with King Laius they received a prophecy. The Prophecy stated, â€Å"King Laius would be murdered by his own son.† So Jocasta has a very hard decision to make which isShow MoreRelatedOedipus The King By Sophocles848 Words   |  4 PagesOedipus the King, written by Sophocles, follows the tragic story of a king named Oedipus who goes from an all-powerful ruler to a hopeless blind peasant. Oedipus the King was written as a play and performed in front of an audience. Sophocles shows in Oedipus the King that one cannot escape the fate of the gods. Throughout the play Oedipus struggles to find a solution and change all the troubles in his life. The play observes the story of Oedipus who defies the gods and through the journey e xperiencesRead MoreSophocles Oedipus The King1714 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"ideal tragedy† is the play â€Å"Oedipus the King† written by Sophocles. In this play, Sophocles utilizes the concept of tragedy as well the theory of the importance of scenes of recognition and reversal to create a setting, tone, and mood throughout the play. Oedipus, the mythical king of Thebes, goes through a horrendous tragedy which includes moments of recognition and reversal. These moments are key to the fame and appreciation for the play, â€Å"Oedipus the King†. Sophocles’ use of Aristotle’s conceptsRead MoreSophocles Oedipus The King884 Words   |  4 PagesKing of Thebes, owner of a family tree that identically resembles Medusa on a bad hair day, and the inspiration for a psychologically-riveting complex, Oedipus, tragic hero of Sophocles’ Oedipus the King, exposes troubling truths about the human condition and, acting as an exemplary precaution for th e entirety of humanity, demonstrates how a self-destructive struggle between love, anger, and fate, conveyed through an unorthodox love affair between mother and son (Who gets custody in a divorce?),Read MoreSophocles Oedipus The King992 Words   |  4 PagesThroughout tragedies in Greek literature, the hero always has one tragic flaw. In Sophocles’ Oedipus the King, Oedipus’ main flaw is his overactive hubris, which in turn clouds his overall judgment. This is evident in the Chorus’ first ode to the city of Thebes as they try to ask the Gods for the banishment of the plague. Their answer does not come from a deity, but from Oedipus himself as he enters the palace and says, â€Å"You have prayed; and you prayers shall be answered with help and release ifRead MoreOedipus The King By Sophocles950 Words   |  4 PagesThe people throughout Oedipus’ life trues very hard to allow him to escape his fate of killing his father and then marrying his mother. In the epic poem Oedipus the King, Sophocles tells the story of the tragic downfall of Oedipus. Although many people see the role of free will that brought upon Oedipus’ doom, no matter what choices were made throughout his life, his ultimate fate would always return. The choices made at the beginning of Oedipus’ life set him up to fulfill his prophecy. His parentsRead MoreOedipus The King By Sophocles904 Words   |  4 Pages In Sophocles play â€Å"Oedipus the King† a deadly plague has descended upon the kingdom of Thebes, and because of this plague a dark and iniquitous secret begins to unravel itself only to reveal a web of events connecting Oedipus and others as the culprits behind all the havoc ensued. No one is the sole source responsible for the unfortunate events that befall Thebes, as well as the royal family; In fact, those who unknowingly paved the path of destruction were themselves trying to prevent it fromRead MoreOedipus the King by Sophocles1393 Words   |  6 Pages Sophocles’ play, Oedipus the King, has risen many questions concerning the main character and whether or not he acts on free will or if his future is predestined by the gods. I am going to test the theory that although Oedipus believes he is acting on his own free will, he is in fact a victim of the gods. I will analyze several different sources that discuss fate and human agency in Oedipus the King and then proceed to build my original argument on the archaic debate. There has been a great dealRead MoreSophocles Oedipus The King Essay1960 Words   |  8 Pages This would have been excellent advice for the main character in Sophocles drama, Oedipus the King. However, the drama was written as a result of Sophocles life and the influence of the humanistic culture in which he lived. Throughout Sophocles life, he gained military knowledge as the son of a wealthy armor manufacturer and received an excellent Greek education with emphasis on Homeric poetry (textbook). Furthermore, Sophocles was very involved in politics and served as a treasurer, a generalRead MoreOedipus The King, By Sophocles1407 Words   |  6 PagesWhen we think about a tragic play or protagonist, most people would think Shakespeare for his common theme of his plays to end with a tragedy. In Oedipus the King, written by Sophocles, tells the tale of the protagonist Oedipus. Throughout the play, Oedipus searched for his past to discover the reason why his kingdom is plagued with wilting crops and illnesses. In the end, he becomes a tragic protagonist after discovering his past was related to the previous king’s death. While the search progressedRead MoreSophocles Oedipus The King871 Words   |  4 PagesThe plays written by Sophocles, â€Å"Oedipus the King â€Å"and â€Å"Antigone† are bodies of work displayed the meaning of what Aristotle defined as a tragedy. â€Å"Oedipus the King† is a story of a king trying to avoid the fate of his life that has been prophesized before his birth. In â€Å"Antigone† is story of a girl who devoted to her family, and regardless of the orders made the king Creon. In these stories the archetypes and hamartia of Antigone and Oedipus play a major role in the story. In â€Å"Antigone† the character

History and Significance of True and Fair

Question: Discuss about the History and Significance of True and Fair. Answer: Introduction: Every concept has its own history whether it is related to the field of science or economics or commerce. In science the concept has history through the various experiments conducted by the scientists and in the field of commerce and economics the experiments are conducted by the experienced person but do not treat it as a scientific research project. In this way, every concept has its own meaning and discovery. In the topic under the study, the background of the concept of true and fair view will be reviewed. The definition of the true and fair view have not been provided by any law, statute, rules, regulations or any other enactment for the time being in force. It has been judged and understood by applying the rule of the common parlance. All the businesses across the world prepare their books of accounts. Small businesses maintain as per their requirements and needs as some of them are not eligible to maintain mandatory books of accounts whereas in case of other business including large ones the books of accounts needs to be made in accordance with the relevant laws and regulations. The failure to do so will result in penalty in different sections. The main purpose of the enactments is to give the clear and correct picture of the affairs of the business. Thus, to some extent the true and fair view represents the clear and correct picture of the books of accounts in the older days. The vie w was further extended in the beginning of the era of eighteen hundreds when the question was considered in the United Kingdom of getting all the documents of the company uploaded on the Government website through which the stakeholders of the company can view the documents and annual reports so as to ascertain whether the company is profit making or not. Thereafter the concept of true and fair view has gained significance and has to picture in the field of accounting and auditing in year of eighteen hundred and forty four. In the United Kingdom Companies Act for 1944, it is incorporated at the first that the directors of the company are liable to get the books of accounts prepared and ready and provide the same in the form of Balance Sheet, Statement of Profit and Loss and the Cash Flow Statement and that too shall be in full and fair (Chambers and Wolnizer, 2011). The said requirements was further abolished and it has been incorporated that the directors of the company are require d to adopt the financial statement of the company for the year ending and its the duty and responsibility of the auditor to check the financial statements and give his opinion thereon stating that the financial statements represents the true and correct view of the affairs of the company. From this mentioning of the statement it is clear that the concept of true and fair view has stepped into the roots of the accounting system and that with the approval of the statutes and law. But as of now the definition of the same concept has not been given rather it has been stated that the concept of true and fair view will be used interchangeably with the phrase true and correct, full and fair. With the inclusion of having the fair practices in the business, the company will ensure that there will not be any sort of cheating, fraud, embezzlement, etc. Apart from the statutes, the concept has gained importance in the agreements which are entered by various businessmen to expand their business. One such form of business which has received importance is the Partnership. Partnership firms are created by the agreements and on the basis of the mutual trust and the confidences which the parties to the partnership firm have gained over the earlier years. The partnership agreement includes the provision that at the end of the every year the actual books of accounts will be prepared and that should reflect the true and correct value of the profit and loss earned by the firm. Through this the partners of the firm will have the correct idea of how much the profit has been earned by the firm and how much loss shall be suffered by the firm and that too shall be shared between the partner s. In this route, the true and fair view has been extended from government filings of the United Kingdom based company to the inclusion in the partnership and similar kind of the business agreements (Vladu and Matis, 2012). The concept has further gained its existence when by the court of the order in England in relation to company Mine Adventures, the board of directors and special officers so nominated by the government were asked to prepare the balance sheet and profit and loss of the company that will represent the true state of affairs of the company. It is so done because of the company being gone to liquidation and in order to safeguard the interest of the creditors and the lenders of the funds providers at the time of the liquidations (Deegan,2010). Similarly the banking companies have included in its guidelines to represent the actual affairs of the company that too with the supporting documents and relevant facts. It will include not only the financial statements but also the loan processing documents and the fulfillment of Know your customer guidelines. In this world everyone has the right to know each and everything about his estate, firms, businesses and others. If he does not have the power to do so then the basic assumption of having the rational behavior of the people will be defeated. Therefore, everyone should have knowledge of everything what he possess and actually have in the books of accounts. If the books of accounts gives different figure then the figure which is as per the owner of the business is correct then the use of keeping the books of accounts will have vain. In the Universal Dictionary of Trade and Commerce, it is mentioned very clearly that the worth of anything will be equivalent to the benefits it will give to the readers and the society. This phrase has led the transformation of mere keeping books of accounts to the true and correct representation of the affairs and performance of the company. Thus, the true and fair view though has not been defined in any act or statutes, but has been referred by other names and has been gaining the importance since then. Australian government has taken major four decisions in the year of 1997 which are: An institution or the board shall be set up for setting the accounting standard The members of the board so set up shall be of the person who can take independent decision without any bias in the area of finance and accounting To develop the council as the central council which will coordinate with the board so constituted and gives the grants and approve the budgets so as to ensure the effective working of the board and also selects the members of the boards after following the due recruitment process and To develop the accounting standards which can be applied by all the organizations operating across the world and specifically the companies operating in the country of Australia. (Australia Australian Government Official Website, 2017.) From the year 1997, itself thus the board has decided to develop the accounting standards for the companies and the central council informed the general public and the companies that the accounting standards so developed by the accounting standard board shall be complied with at each level of companies and that will be effective from the year of two thousand and five. Thus, the mandatory provision, being incorporated in the Corporations Act of the year 2001, has informed the companies to comply the requirements of the accounting standards. The same though will be effective from the year 2005 but as the previous figures will also be required to mention in the financial statements, the same will become effective from the year 2004 in the context of pres entation of the financial statements as per the defined disclosure requirements of the relevant accounting standards. Further, in accordance with the requirements of the Corporations Act, each and every company is required to maintain the books of accounts and financial statements along with the schedule and notes to the financial statements in order to provide the true and fair view of the conduct of the business (Parliament of Australia, 2009). .Along with this requirement, the Corporations Act has laid down the following provisions in regard to the preparation of the financial statements: The company shall prepare the financial statements including the necessary disclosures as per the provisions of the relevant accounting standards The true and fair view shall be presented by the company of the state of the affairs and the performance of the company for the period ending as on the relevant date. If the financial statements so made are not as per the relevant notified standard then the same fact shall be disclosed as per the disclosure requirements of the relevant accounting standard in order to give the true and fair view of the affairs of the company Along with the above, the auditors are required to audit the books of accounts along with the financial statements of the company and shall give the report stating their opinion as to whether the disclosures so made or financial statements so prepared are in accordance with the relevant financial statements (FRC, 2014). But the provision of the Corporations Act is in disagreement with the concept of the true and fair view as envisaged since its inception or coming into existence. The Corporations Act have laid down that if the financial statements are in compliance with the accounting standards then no disclosure is required and in case it does not comply with the relevant accounting standards as applicable to the company then the disclosure needs to be made as to represent the true and fair view of the financial position and financial performance of the company. The same has been argued by many authors and persons. The Institute of Directors located in Australia has argued that the mandatory provisions as envisaged by the Corporations Act is the applicability and the compliance with the accounting standards and to have the financial statements represented the true and fair view, the necessary disclosure will be required when the standards are not applied and hence regarded the true and fair view as secondary compliance. Further the Chairman of the board has argued and stated that the two concepts true and fair view and the accounting standards are two distinct and separate and cannot be equated with one another. This fact is further supported by committee of the Auditing and Assurance Board of Australia when it is stated that the true and fair view is the concept which has over riding effect in almost all of the accounting standards and no requirement of any accounting or auditing standard can equate with the same. One of member of the same committee has further argued that in common parlance if the company is maintaining the books of accounts and preparing the financial statements in accordance with the accounting standards then the same in itself communicate the fact that the companys financial statements reflects a true and fair view of the financial position and the financial performance of the company. The committee and Australian Exchange Commission members in consorti um has further argued its the duty of the auditors to verify the books of accounts and check whether the financial statements have been prepared in accordance with the relevant accounting standards. After checking and verifying the same the auditor shall give his or her opinion in the audit report stating the flaws or discrepancies if any noticed and the non compliance with the relevant accounting standard if any comes into place during the audit. Thus, these arguments reflect that the accounting standard has been developed and maintained only for reflecting the true and fair view of the conduct of the company. Without the accounting standards the financial statements cannot represent the true and fair view and also will not be helpful for the users if the financial statements. In this way, the concept of true and fair view has gained significance and has got support from various boards and committees and has over riding effect over all the statutes and regulations and governance. Every company is required to prepare the financial statements at the period end and as per the provisions of the Corporations Act 2001; the company shall comply with the relevant accounting standards. This is done so as to reflect the true and fair view of the affairs and position of the company as at the year end. The concept has come into existence in the year of 1844 through the enactment of Joint Stock Companies Act, 1844. From then the development have taken place in almost all the different types of industry and the same have been followed consistently throughout the life of the company and cases have been seen where at the time of liquidation adoption of the true and fair view has been emphasized so as to protect the interests of the investor and the creditors. Thus, to conclude the review the concept of true and fair view is very important for every company. True and fair view though defined by any law, regulation or rules but still has gained importance from all over the years. The aim of the study at the first instance is to know from where the concept of true and fair view has come and later the aim was to know what was the purpose of understanding the meaning of the concept and how it has gained importance. Therefore, to fulfill this objective, the review has been started with the history of the concept true and fair view. From where the term has come into origin and what is the intent of using it in the financial system has been discussed. In the beginning the light has been thrown in the cases of early eighteenth century and thereafter the importance if true and fair view in the business agreements, formal agreements and partnership agreements has been detailed. Thereafter, the support that the concept has received have been discussed from the Australian Government and reached to the level where the concept has given the overriding effect. The review has been bifurcated into the different heading so as to provide the better understanding of the concept and have obtained the data for relevant sources. The financial statements of every company should be prepared in such a manner that the companys financial position and financial performance can be best viewed. Thus, there arises the need of having the understanding of the concept True and Fair view. The users can obtain the relevant information and take the decision on it only when the financial statements so prepared will give the true picture of the health of the company otherwise the users will end up with choosing another company for their purpose. The literature review so conducted and explained has stated that the accounting standards so framed by the Australian Accounting Standards Board are very important in preparing the financial statements. Its because the accounting standard help in ensuring that the financial statements reflects the true and fair view of the position and performance of the company in financial terms. Thus, to summarize the financial statements shall reflect the true and fair view at each point of time. References Australian Government Official Website, (2017), Strengthening the Financial Reporting Framework available at https://archive.treasury.gov.au/documents/403/HTML/docshell.asp?URL=Ch6.asp accessed on 13/04/2017. Chambers R and Wolnizer P, (2011), A True and Fair View of position and results: the historical background available at https://sydney.edu.au/arms/archives/chambers/chambers_onlineitems/10-USA-P202-2-09640.PDF accessed on 12/04/2017. Deegan C, (2010), An Overview of the Australian External reporting Environment, available at https://www.slideshare.net/joshuatuisawau/deegan5e-ch01 accessed on 13/04/2017. FRC, (2014), True and Fair Statement available at https://www.accaglobal.com/in/en/technical-activities/technical-resources-search/2014/june/frc-true-fair.html accessed on 12/04/2017. Parliament of Australia, (2009), Financial Reporting available at www.aph.gov.au/Parliamentary_Business/.../House_of_Representatives_Committees? accessed on 12/04/2017. Vladu A and Matis D, (2012), True and Fair View and Creative Accounting Conceptual Delimitations Based on Papineaus Tree Methodology, available at https://www.oeconomica.uab.ro/upload/lucrari/1420121/09.pdf accessed on 12/04/2017.

Multiculturalism vs Homonationalism free essay sample

Pim Fortuyn, being the first arguing for anti-multiculturalism to safeguard the gay community, openly dismissed religious principles and cultural traditions of the Islamic community in the Netherlands. Geert Wilders’ political party, â€Å"Party for the Freedom†, seems to move in a similar direction, where nationalist policies are promoted, multiculturalism is criticized (especially the presence of a Islamic community), and the rights of the â€Å"original† Dutch citizens, including the gay community, are centrally positioned. This â€Å"exclusion of racial and class others† rooted in the inclusion of homosexuals in â€Å"body politics† has been conceptualized by Puar as ‘homonationalism’ (Aydemir, 2012, p. 188). In this paper, the position of gay rights in the discussion surrounding (anti-) multiculturalism in Dutch politics is examined. It will be argued that ‘Homonationalism is increasingly used in Dutch politics to support anti-multiculturalist views’. Firstly, two crucial developments, i. e. the ‘normalization process’ of homosexuality on the one side and the emergence of a multicultural society on the other side, are separately presented. Next, the current clash of these two developments, and its political ramifications are examined. For this examination, the concept ‘homonationalism’ is presented. Afterwards, and lastly, the relation between ‘homonationalism’ and anti-multiculturalist movements in Dutch politics is analysed. Normalization of Homosexuality in the Netherlands During the last decades, a trend of homo-emancipation has been witnessed in Western European countries (Aydemir, 2012). The Netherlands has been a frontrunner in this process of promoting acceptance and tolerance of gay ommunities, which in a relatively short time has led to a high level of ‘normalization’ of homosexuality. Multiple milestones of homo-emancipation in the Netherlands can be identified during this process, which eventually evolved to a high level of ‘normalization’ (Mepschen et al. , 2009). The first milestone, taking place around 1971, covers the abolishment of legal discriminatio n and criminalization of homosexuality. On a global level, homosexuality was removed as a psychiatric disorder from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders of the American Psychiatric Association (Mepschen et al. , 2010). At the same time, the age of consent was equalized for homosexuals and heterosexuals in the Netherlands, lowering the age for homosexuals from 21 to 16 years. The second milestone concerned the further establishment of equal rights for homosexuals. This wave culminated in April 2001, when homosexuals were legally given civil marriage rights. The third milestone pertains to the social acceptance of homosexuality by society at large and commenced last decade. A high level of ‘normalization’ has been established already, with some politicians and societal groups actively safeguarding the level reached (Van der Veer, 2006).. The rapid and extended acceptance and tolerance towards homosexuality in the Netherlands can be attributed to two main factors. Firstly, the widespread secularization, taking place from 1960s throughout the Netherlands, gave way to de-pillarization (Mepschen, 2010). The fading of pillars – hierarchically structured subcultures based on religion, which originally formed the basis of the social organization of the Dutch society – freed the Dutch population from conservatism and oppressive structures. As Mepschen et al. (2010, p. 66) stated, in one generation the Dutch society transformed from â€Å"one of the most religious societies in the world to one of its most secular†. Christianity, being traditionally the most conformed religious belief in the Netherlands, became less important with the population gradually embracing expressionism and self-reflection (Wekker, 2009). This secularization contributed to the development of acceptance and toleration, since the Du tch society was freed from the Christian thought that condemned homosexual behaviour. Secondly, the Dutch political and institutional framework contributed to acceptance and toleration of homosexuality (Mepschen, 2010). The corporatist style of Dutch authorities allowed greater influence of the new movements, promoting an accepting and tolerating environment. Homosexual liberation movements â€Å"reinforced an ethos of individual freedom, autonomy and enjoyment as alternatives to the authoritarian past† (Mepschen et al. , 2010, p. 965). Due to these influences, Dutch citizens distanced themselves from traditionalism and increasingly urged for liberal policies (Butler, 2008). The existing political environment in the Netherlands eased the process of creating acceptance and tolerance towards homosexuality, where it allowed homosexual liberation movements as well as politicians, like Pim Fortuyn and Geert Wilders, to express their opinions openly and to create awareness among the population (Hekma amp; Duyvendak, 2011). The Emergence of Multiculturalism in the Netherlands After the Second World War, the Netherlands faced multiple periods of successive immigration flows. During the 1950s and 1960s, most immigrants originated from former Dutch colonies. South Europeans followed, where during the end of the 1950s most immigrants were Spanish, Italian or Portuguese citizens. Immigration flows from Morocco and Turkey to the Netherlands was almost constantly present since the 1960s, mostly as a reply to the demand of cheap labour. These immigration flows contributed to the high diversity of culture present in Dutch society, creating a multicultural environment (Ceuppens amp; Geschiere, 2005). Often however, the term multiculturalism reflects not the presence of all cultures and is used in the political sphere as a euphemism for the growing number of Muslim citizens (Jivraj amp; de Jong, 2011). Currently, around five percent of the Dutch population has an Islamic background. Noticeable, around eighty percent of the citizens with this background lives closely together in urban districts, primarily in the west of the country (the so-called Randstad) (Buijs et al. , 2009). The increasing presence of the Islamic tradition in these areas in the Netherlands has, according to some, resulted in clashing morals and beliefs. Political views on this issue are diverse. Pim Fortuyn and Geert Wilders became most well-known for their restrictive immigration policy programs and their opinions on the Dutch multicultural society, and received significant support (Mepschen, 2009). They represent the most radical political view, building on the ideas of Ceuppens and Geschiere who argue that the Dutch society and cultural heritage should be protected from lternative non-Western influences, especially from societal groups with Islamic background (2005). Homonationalism and Anti-Multiculturalism in Dutch Politics Various scholars have highlighted the two important aspect in the Dutch nationalist discussion (Mepschen et al, 2010; Mepschen 2009; Buijs et al. , 2009; Buijs et al. , 2011; Butler, 2008; Van der Veer, 2006): On the one hand, there are apparent limits in Dutch t olerance towards Muslims, while on the other hand, Muslim citizens show limits in respecting the liberal Dutch values, including secular attitudes towards homosexuality. Puar introduced the concept ‘homonationalism’, referring to gay politics as invoking a difference between the ‘West’ and the Islam (2007). In other words, gay rights have been used in Dutch politics to create a distinction between the tolerating ‘Dutch’ and the homophobic ‘others’, mostly referred to Muslims. Pim Fortuyn’s role in the entanglement of antipathy towards Islamic groups with the politics of sexual freedom has been crucial (Van der Veer, 2006). In March 2002, when his party participated for the first time in the municipal elections of the city of Rotterdam, the party received almost 35 percent of the votes. In May of the same year, his party won more than 17 percent of all votes in the national elections. This large support was based on his views and action plan to ‘close the borders’ of the Netherlands, refusing most asylum seekers to enter the country, while portraying individuals with an Islamic background as a threat to the Dutch society (Van der Veer, 2006). He described Muslims as being ‘backward’ and as a threat to his personal freedom to be an openly homosexual man. He stated â€Å"I refuse to start all over again with the emancipation of women and gays. He successfully made a connection between sexual freedoms and secularization as the symbols of modern Dutch culture on the one hand, and an Islamic culture portrayed as backward and intolerant on the other hand (Mepschen, 2009). Since 2010, also Geert Wilders’ â€Å"Party for the Freedom† gained large support for its anti-Muslim position, in the light of Islamic beliefs opposing modern Du tch secular values. Geert Wilders used a similar gay rights discourse as a language for critique on the Islam and multiculturalism. From the perspective of the Islamic community in the Netherlands, the rhetoric of Geert Wilders and Pim Fortuyn is perceived as hostile and directed at their beliefs and values. This has also been recognized by the European Commission against Racism and Intolerance, who conclude that â€Å"Muslims in the Netherlands are subject of stereotyping, stigmatizing and sometimes outright racist political discourse and of biased media portrayal, and have been disproportionately targeted by security and other policies† (ECRI, 2008). Moreover, half of the Dutch population reports to feel aversion to the Islam, whereas 80 percent considers the Muslim integration in Dutch society to have failed (TNS-NIPO, 2003). Finally, the majority of the Dutch, partly due to the image created by Dutch politicians like Geert Wilders and Pim Fortuyn, have the feeling that the increased presence of Islam in the Netherlands threatens national identity (Kromhouts amp; Smits, 2008). These feelings are used and even exploited by populist’s politicians like Geert Wilders. In sum, there is a conflict between established gay rights and Islamic values and beliefs, which Wilders and Fortuyn have put on top of their political agenda. The Dutch Ministry for Education, Culture and Science also recognized this conflict. Consequently, They developed a policy document in 2007 named ‘Gewoon Homo Zijn’ (translated: Just Being Gay) in which they formulate measures to appease the emerging conflicting positions. The Policy implications and other action plans proposed in the document, further strengthen homo-emancipation in the Netherlands taking cultural diversity into account. The document places two values as essential in the public agenda: social acceptance and tolerance of homosexuality and freedom to be openly gay. The main goal listed in the document refers to the promotions of ‘speak-ability’ or ‘discuss-ability’ of homosexuality within the various groups of society (OCW, 2007). When listing the goals of the action plan and when is referred to the various groups in society that have to be intensively included in the homo-emancipation, the core target groups to be addressed are the Moroccan and Turkish Muslim communities. Especially within these communities, homosexuality is relatively not tolerated and accepted (Jivraj amp; de Jong, 2011). Anti-multiculturalist politicians use this relatively low acceptance and tolerance rate of homosexuality by the Moroccan and Turkish Muslim communities to strengthen their position. To do so, gay rights are heralded as if they were part of the â€Å"traditional† Dutch culture and as if the â€Å"original† population has no conflicting values in this matter (Wekker, 2009). An examination of violence reports, providing information on the occurrence of violent and criminal behaviour in Amsterdam, shows that, surprisingly for a city having worldwide recognition to be gay friendly, the city is having severe problems with violence against homosexual citizens. Young homosexual adolescents between 15 and 25 years old are most frequently the victims of violent behaviour, where more than 30 percent of the cases recorded involved physical violence (Buijs et al. , 2009). Political parties like the â€Å"Party for the Freedom† claim that the criminals of this anti-homosexual violence in the urban areas, like the city of Amsterdam, are mostly having an Islamic background (and being almost always Moroccans). However, when further studying the examination of violence reports, it can be concluded that both native Dutch and citizens with an Islamic background are suspects of anti-homosexual violent behaviour. Though, the latter group of Islamic background is overrepresented as suspects, when taking into account the demographics of the city. The violent and intolerant attitudes, from citizens with an Islamic background as well as the â€Å"original† Dutch and various political parties, is partially also explained by public statements of both sides. In 2001 – the same year, that homosexuals were given civil marriage rights – an unknown imam from Rotterdam, Khalil El-Moumni, declared that in his view Europeans were â€Å"lower than pigs and dogs† by giving homosexuals equal civil marriage rights. He publically opposed homosexuality in all its forms. It was in the same year again, that Pim Fortuyn got large public support, opposing views similar to the ones of Khalil El-Moumni. Following Pim Fortuyn, various other politicians took up gay rights issues and did not avoid Islamophobic tones in the defence of secular Dutch rights. This Islamophobic attitude has not been contributing to the integration of the Islamic community in Dutch society and will not contribute to the development of homo-emancipation in the Dutch society at large. Hekma and Duyvendak (2011, p. 627) therefore â€Å"encourage strategies that explicitly repudiate all forms of Islamophobia but do not silence those who fight for the sexual citizenship rights of all, and therefore have to fight against those Muslim groups that reject homosexuality. Political attention and public statement for anti-multiculturalist movements, in the sake of homo-emancipation and to protect Dutch secular values, have to be more nuanced and should avoid blanket statements. These statements overlook the homosexual-friendly Muslims and are countering the positive change that is aimed for within these communities (Ke uzenkamp, 2010). Conclusion In the homo-emancipation process in Western Europe, the Netherlands has been exceptional in its pace of generating and strengthening acceptance and tolerance for homosexuality in society at large. The Dutch society even reached in this process a remarkable level of ‘normalization’ of homosexuality. Multiple milestones have been contributing to reach this level, where especially after 1971 the process has been progressing rapidly, relative to other Western European countries. The de-pillarization of Dutch society, as a consequence of the secularization, and the Dutch political and institutional environment empowered this ‘normalization’ of homosexuality. Aside of increasing acceptance and tolerance of homosexuality in Dutch society, a cultural transformation process took place, where the Netherlands faced large flows of immigration from former colonies, Mediterranean countries and, noticeably, Morocco and Turkey. Consequently, the society has become increasingly culturally diverse. These two developments, normalization of homosexuality and the establishment of a multiculturalist society, have clashed, resulting in anti-multiculturalist movements within Dutch politics. Likewise, some political parties have used homonationalism to strengthen their position on anti-multiculturalism. They justify their position upon threats of the culturally diverse society, mostly referring to the Islamic communities present in the Dutch society, on Dutch secular values. In the future it will be interesting to see how traditional Dutch political parties will position themselves in this debate. Positioning themselves in this debate is a balancing act. Since, on the one hand, they want to denounce the anti-Muslim rhetoric of Wilders, while on the other hand, they want to express full right to homosexual values in the Netherlands. Reference List Anti-homogeweld zijn geen incidenten. Inbreng PVV debat homo-emancipatie (n. d. ) URL: www. pvv. nl/index. php? option1? 4com_contentandtask1? 4viewandid1? 4906. Aydemir, M. (2012). The Postcolonial Low Countries: Literature, Colonialism, Multiculturalism. Plymouth, United Kingdom: Lexington Books. Buijs, L. , Hekma, G. , amp; Duyvendak, J. W. (2009). Als ze maar van me afblijven. Een onderzoek naar antihomoseksueel geweld in Amsterdam. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. Buijs, L. , Hekma, G. , amp; Duyvendak, J. W. (2011). ‘As long as they keep away from me’: The paradox of antigay violence in a gay-friendly country. Sexualities, 14(6), 632 – 652. Butler, J. (2008). Sexual politics, torture, and secular time. British Journal of Sociology, 59(1), 1–23. Ceuppens, B. , amp; Geschiere, P. (2005). Autochthons or indigenous? New models in the struggle over citizenship in Africa and Europe. Annual Review of Anthropology, 34, 385–407. ECRI (European Commission against Racism and Intolerance) (2008) Third Report on the Netherlands. Strasbourg: ECRI. Hekma, G. , amp; Duyvendak, J. W. (2011). Queer Netherlands: A puzzling example. Sexualities, 14(6), 625 – 631. Jivraj, S. amp; Jong de, A. (2011). The Dutch homo-emancipation policy and its silencing effect on queer Muslims. Feminist Legal Studies, 19, 143 – 158. Keuzenkamp, S. (2010). Steeds gewoner, nooit gewoon. Den Haag: SCP. Kromhout, B. , amp; Smits, F. (2008). ‘De Geschiedenismonitor 2008 [The History Monitor 2008]’, Historisch Nieuwsblad 3. Mepschen, P. (2009). ‘Against Tolerance: Islam, Sexuality, and the Politics of Belonging in the Netherlands’. Retrieved 2 March 2013, from: http://mrzine. monthlyreview. org/2009/mepschen130709. html Mepschen, P. , Duyvendak, J. W. amp; Tonkens, H. (2010). Sexual politics, Orientalism and multicultural citizenship in the Netherlands. Sociology, 44(5), 962–979. OCW (Ministerie voor Onderwijs, Cultuur en Wetenschap) (2007). Gewoon Homo Zijn: Lesbisch- en homoemancipatiebeleid 2008–2011. Retrieved 2 March 2013, from: http://www. rijksoverheid. nl/documenten-en-publicaties/notas/ 2007/11/14/nota-lesbisch-en-homo-emancipatiebeleid-2008-2011-gewoon-homo-zijn. html. Puar, J. K. (2007). Terrorist assemblages: Homonationalism in Queer Times. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. TNS-NIPO (2003). ‘Helft Nederlanders heeft Angst voor Toenemend Aantal Moslims [Half of Dutch Fear Growing Number of Muslims]’. Retrieved 2 March 2013, from: http://www. tns-nipo. com/pages/nieuws-pers-politiek. asp? file= persvannipo%5Cpol03_37. htm Van der Veer, P. (2006). Pim Fortuyn, Theo Van Gogh, and the politics of tolerance in the Netherlands. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Vrij Pers Bureau. Wekker, G. (2009). Van homo nostalgie en betere tijden. Multiculturaliteit en postkolonialiteit, George Mosse Lecture 2009, Amsterdam. Retrieved 2 March 2013, from: http://www. uva. nl/lecture2201821.